Retribution and Revenge: A Brief Look at the Pershing Expedition
It seems a little strange to write an article discussing all the events which lead up to the Columbus Raid while mostly ignoring the events that took place immediately after. So, take this as a bit of a sequel or follow-up to my previous project on the subject (linked here).
The Pershing Expedition was a massive undertaking, evolving 14,000 US soldiers, 140,000 national guardsmen, and one of the first American deployments of aviation in a combat theatre. All of which came together to hunt down Pancho Villa, the man who had wronged the invaders. It was an operation that was large in scope and provided the United States with some much-needed experience in terms of both logistics and management which would prove vital during the American entry into the European war later in 1917.
An operation which also nearly led to the resumption of conflict between the United States and Mexico in terms of a second Mexican-American War. However, it’s important to examine why this didn’t happen while also examining the nightmare situation which all factions involved in this expedition experienced during this thankfully brief stint of conflict.
As a change of pace, this article will have more of a narrative focus compared to some of my other nonfiction work, following a clear chain of events and taking necessary asides to explain context and motives as they are appropriate.
So, with that being said, let’s talk about the Pershing Expedition.
Why Pershing?
Who was General Pershing?
Before the expedition was undertaken, Pershing was the commander of the 10th US Cavalry Regiment, an all-black unit position in the US Southwest. He served in the Indian Wars, the Philippine Insurrection, and acted as an observer for the United States during the Russo-Japanese War.
He was a natural fit for the position, having prior combat experience and also being one of the leading military figures in the region, knowing the terrain well. As such, he was given the position soon after the Columbus Raid.
Almost immediately, Pershing was confronted with two problems when it came to intervening into Mexico.
The first was the unsupportive nature of the legitimate Mexican government under Carranza. Unlike what Villa claimed, Carranza was a nationalist who had no interest in seeing a US army positioned upon Mexican soil.
When first confronted by the reality of the expedition, Carranza attempted to barter for a compromise, promising that Mexican forces would capture Villa themselves. Though the US declined such an offer, likely seeing a loss of national prestige if they were to back down. What followed were weeks of tense negotiations which would eventually lead to Carranza reluctantly accepting the expedition. Yet, he was cold to their presence, offering little aid in terms of military or logistical support.
The second issue for Pershing was that of logistics.
Firstly, there was the issue of railroads. Like mentioned, Carranza didn’t offer the United States much support in terms of logistics. Access to Mexican railways was not given until a couple months into the invasion and even then, this access was on a secretive basis and the railroads were of a poor quality. They were so sluggish that it would take a train about 17 hours to travel a mere 27 miles into the country.
Then there was the issue of equipment. For example, of the eight airplanes famed for being attached to this operation, only two were in a working state by the time American forces crossed the border. There was also a shortage of trucks and truck parts. Early into the invasion, the US army even needed to confiscate civilian automobiles in order to fill gaps in procured equipment. $450,000 were eventually allocated to acquiring new vehicles but these were slow to arrive and were often sent in an incomplete state, furthering delays. The roads in Mexico were also rarely paved, meaning breakdowns were frequent while spare parts were sparse. This meant that US forces often had to rely on animals for transport. Animals which often died due to inadequate conditions and poor feed.
Regardless of these limitations, Pershing continued with his expedition regardless.
Initially, he made great progress. A month after the events in Columbus, on April 8th 1916, Pershing had managed to push 400 miles into Mexico with around 6675 men. Though the operation was still plagued with frequent issues which were not getting any better as the supply lines grew longer and longer.
The airplane unit, which was supposed to be cutting edge, did not possess airplanes which could fly above elevation required to properly navigate the mountainous terrain of Northern Mexico, meaning that their range and utility was severely limited.
There was also the animosity of the local populace to contend with. While they wished to see an end to Villa, and the endless cycle of war that he brought, they hated the Americans even more. This extended to both the civilian populace and the various Mexican factions which operated in the region. A common tactic of resistance was to provide false intel to waste American time and assets.
The supply issues also started to further compound as units were sent into operations without proper gear or supplies. This led to desertions due to poor gear and food. Plus, scouting units were repeatedly sent out without cold weather gear which made operating in mountains especially harsh during the brisk Mexican spring. It was reported that by April 15th 1916, US forces were reduced to little more than the rags upon their backs.
The first battles of the expedition took place on April 10th and 11th when US forces encountered Villa’s in the battle of Lajoya and Santra Crus which did see casualties on Villa’s side but had failed in their objective of capturing him.
Then on April 12th, US forces engaged Carranza’s at Parral, leading to US casualties and relations between the two governments growing increasingly tense. On April 22nd, General Herrera refused to apologize for the skirmish and forced Pershing to pull back to San Antonio, instead of allowing him to advance further into the country.
In response to this attack, attempts were made to mend the tense US-Mexican relations when Pershing called for a summit consisting of both nation’s generals.
Prior to this summit, however, the situation remained problematic and grew increasingly worse when Mexican forces of an unknown origin attacked Glen Springs and Boquillas in Texas on May 9th, spurring a call for National Guard units in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas to be raised. This meant that an additional 140,000 armed Americans were primed and ready on the border when the conference was finally held.
During the conference, Mexico claimed that the US was prolonging their civil war and was playing the various factions off on each other for their benefit. They also called out US business interests for supplying the various factions involved, including those that were now attacking US soil. In response, the US mentioned they were only there for Villa and that the raid only happened due to Mexican weakness in restraining him. In the end, the conference amounted to nothing with neither side conceding ground on the matter.
In June, attacks renewed upon the Americans. The US consulate in Chihuahua was besieged at the same time that a nearby American-owned ranch was looted. A party of Mexicans once more invaded Texas near Laredo. And on June 21st, Carranza’s forces would clash with the Americans in Carrizal.
The result of this skirmish was a Mexican strategic victory which further limited the intrusion of US forces deeper into Mexico. After the battle, Carranza stated that the only direction US troops would be allowed to march was North, out of his country.
The Return of Our Friend
While Carranza had his hands full, dealing with the US intrusion into his country, Villa was prospering. As he assumed, the American intervention greatly shook the Mexican public and military’s faith in Carranza and greatly weakened his position in the ongoing Civil War.
On September 14th, he started to reoccupy the state of Chihuahua, and by September 20th, he seized the city of Chihuahua itself, garnering himself 16 cars, loads of munitions, and an additional 1500 troops to add to his banner.
In October, Villa felt emboldened, putting out a fresh manifesto calling for a regime change in Mexico with the new government confiscating foreign property, stopping trade and cutting communications with the US, burning foreign debt, and banning foreigners from owning land in Mexico.
By November 2nd, General Pershing knew that he must seize Chihuahua in order to crush Villa. However, by this point, the American public’s opinion, and increasing pressure from Mexico, was making it more and more difficult for the US to act with impunity within the country, especially as an election in the United States rapidly approached. So, his request was denied.
During the election of 1916, the Republican party criticized Wilson for his lackluster performance in the conflict. Their claim was his actions only acted to prolong the civil war and boost his own popularity at home. All while failing to capture the man who had attacked US soil.
At this time, with American domestic pressure mounting, there was a series of peace commissions taking place between representatives of the United States and Mexico, which started back in September 6th 1916 and featured three commissioners from both countries.
Like all previous attempts at diplomacy, the situation revolved around Mexican demands for the removal of US troops. Counter to this, the Americans demanded that Mexican internal affairs must first be brought into order for such a request to be met.
In the end, these summits amounted to nothing.
After the election of 1916, the Republican party would make gains in both the House and Senate while Wilson would narrowly hold onto the presidency. This only further added to pressure on the Wilson administration in terms of bringing the Mexican conflict to a swift conclusion.
By December 9th, this could be seen in US policy within Mexico as Pershing once again asked for permission to attack Villa’s stronghold but was denied by Washington. This was the writing on the wall, proving that the American appetite for revenge had been adequately sated, at least for now, and the conflict could come to a close.
So, in January 1917, US troops started their withdrawal from Mexico. By February 5th 1917 they would cross the border at Columbus, New Mexico, joined by a column of US citizens fearful of Mexican retribution.
Two weeks later, Pershing would be named as the leading officer in the Department of the South, his promotion earned from leading this expedition.
In total, the US spent $130 million dollars on this manhunt and accomplished little in their goal of seizing Villa. If nothing else, they strengthened their mark’s position in Mexican politics, ensuring he remained a thorn in Carranza’s side until peace was eventually reached between the two figures in 1920.
When the Dust Settles
Villa left one last parting gift for the Yankee invaders, promptly crossing the border after the expedition and launching a string of kidnappings within the United States. This was his last little ‘fuck you’ aimed directly at the invaders for failing to catch their mark.
On May 1st 1917, Carranza would draft a new constitution for Mexico, one which greatly angered American interests in the nation. This was his own parting gift to the Americans who had so willingly violated his sovereignty.
It called for:
- The return of lands to the communal Ejidos, breaking apart large estates.
- The nationalization of all subsoil oil/mineral deposits.
- Curbed land ownership by foreigners.
- Aimed to reform educational and religious institutions in Mexico.
This development was met by the classic cascade of condemnations from US political and business interests. But in the end, no intervention was made and peace would slowly come back to the border realms between the United States and Mexico.
But the longest lasting effect of the Pershing expedition was to rehabilitate Pancho Villa, placing him within the pantheon of Mexican folk heroes. After all, who doesn’t love the rugged cowboy who stands up to fight against outside tyranny?
Concluding Remarks
As mentioned in the previous article on the subject, Villa’s raid was meant to achieve one objective: harm Carranza’s regime and strengthen his own position.
In that regard, the Pershing Expedition was an overwhelming success. It managed to harm Carranza’s legitimacy and his position within Mexican politics, actively prolonging the civil war and giving Villa room to rebuild his forces. Something he would use as leverage to ensure his own survival in the years that followed.
As for Carranza, the expedition gave him the final incentive necessary in order to cut ties with the Americans and cement himself as a truly nationalistic figure. His constitution would endure until 1992.
For the Americans, the expedition managed to sooth the national injury endured by Villa’s raid. Sure, they hadn’t captured their man, and sure, they had weakened their own position in Mexico, but at the least they had displayed that Mexico was still a junior partner in any future international agreements. The expedition also provided valuable lessons in terms of logistics, mobilization, and modern warfare which would be vital in helping the United States prepare itself for the war in Europe when it entered only a few months later.
Still, very little had actually changed in the grand scheme of things. Villa and Carranza would both remain active in Mexican affairs, until their assassinations in the 1920s, the US would maintain its hegemonic status over Mexico going forward, and peace between these two nations would somehow prevail through the decades that followed.
Anyways, thanks for reading this little impromptu sequel.
As always, consider following me on social media to stay in touch about what I’m working on. Also, consider tossing me a couple dollars to help pay for books, weed, and coffee to help with future research. Both Patreon and Ko-Fi are fantastic resources for that!
