Pancho Villa: How One Man’s Vendetta Led to War with the United States
The date is March 9th, 1916 and the town is Columbus in New Mexico.
Columbus is a rather unremarkable town on the border with Mexico. It has just one hotel, a few stores, a smattering of homes, and a population of around 350. The most remarkable thing about this town was that it housed the 13th Calvary Regiment of the United States Army.
On that day however, a Mexican army numbering 485 fell upon the usually sleepy settlement, attacking the US garrison and looting the civilian populace in a daring raid. By the end of the day, 25 Americans and 107 Mexicans laid dead.
This attack was carried out under the authority of Pancho Villa, a Mexican warlord in charge of the Northern state of Chihuahua.
Up until 1914, he’d been a close ally to the current government in Mexico City and the United States. Now he was on the losing side of a civil war and growing increasingly desperate.
Within a matter of weeks, an army of 15 000 Americans were positioned upon the Mexican-American border and moved into a foreign country under the leadership of General Pershing. Their task was simple, to hunt down and apprehend the man who had dared to launch an attack against the United States.
They would spend close to a year in foreign territory, struggling to track down the man they sought while facing mounting hostile resistance from both the local populace and the legal government in Mexico City.
By the end, their bounty would escape and the nation of Mexico was left greatly destabilized.
What led to such a situation? What were the reasons behind the United States invading a sovereign nation in an effort to hunt down a fugitive?
To better understand this story, we must first collect several pieces of historical context:
- Why was Mexico in the midst of a civil war?
- Why did the United States feel obliged to invade Mexico to hunt down an outlaw?
- What were Villa’s motives in launching this attack?
With those questions postulated, let’s now talk about history.
Revolutions in the Hills of Mexico
Our story starts in the year 1910, during the 30th year of Porfirio Diaz’s reign. Diaz was the strong man of Mexico until this point, a dictator who made a name for himself resisting the French Intervention into Mexico during the 1860s.
His reign was brutal and he was a corrupt figure who ceded much land and segments of the Mexican economy to foreign interests, especially those in the United States.
In 1910, his rule would be challenged by a man known as Francisco Madero, a reformer who looked to return Mexico’s democratic institutions and reform its economy and industries. He managed to overthrow Diaz after a year-long civil war and position himself as the president of Mexico.
His reign, while popular, was short-lived as he was soon couped and murdered under the authority of a US-backed General named Huerta in 1911.
Huerta, in turn, was opposed by the two main characters of our narrative: Pancho Villa and Venustiano Carranza.
Pancho Villa had been an outlaw back in the Diaz days, though had gained a name for himself gathering forces to help Madero overthrow his regime. Whether this was because of sincere political beliefs or an attempt to capitalize upon being a suddenly legitimized force, it is hard to tell.
He was seen as a daring cowboy, coming from an impoverished background. His skill with a gun was only topped by his abilities when it came to riding a horse. He was loved by the American press who saw him as a rugged hero who was opposing a hostile and reactionary regime.
After Madero’s overthrow and murder, Villa was put in command of the Division of the North, a force of irregulars that, at its peak, numbered tens of thousands strong. With this force, he fought a campaign in Chihuahua against Huerta, acting as a Mexican Robin Hood as he did so.
Venustiano Carranza was a different kind of man. He was born to the Mexican upper class and was seen as well educated. He’d been involved in Mexican politics back in the Diaz days and during the short-lived Madero government he’d been made Governor of Coahuila.
In 1913, these two men, along with another warlord in the south named Zapata made up an allied force known as the Conventionalists who opposed the military regime of Huerta. By March 10th, 1913 Carranza had positioned himself as the provisional president of Mexico and the civil war resumed.
The situation was not optimistic for these forces as by early 1914, they were on the back foot with the US unwilling to provide arms to their various factions involved in the civil war.
Though the relationship between Huerta and the United State’s government, now under Woodrow Wilson, were souring at this time. This was a shocking development as the United States was responsible for bringing together the forces necessary to overthrow the Madero regime in the first place.
On April 9th 1914, US marines were arrested near Vera Cruz and while they were quickly discharged from Mexican prison the incident had created a diplomatic rift between Huerta and the United States. One which could not be remedied and led to American forces attacking the city on April 21st and taking it the next day.
Soon, the shipment of arms had resumed to the Conventionalists and by July 15th, Huerta had fled to Spain with his regime falling by Aug 20th.
Relations between the three key leaders of the Conventionalists soon started to sour as Villa and Zapata positioned themselves against Carranza over the future of Mexico. The alliance had always been one of convenience, over one of sincere belief, and with Huerta now out of the way it quickly fell apart.
Soon, the civil war had resumed, as on Nov 19th 1914, Carranza’s top general, Obregon, declared war on Villa.
Now, with the two sides of this phase of the civil war determined, we can now focus on the United States and its relationship with Mexico, leading up to 1917.
A Century of Violence — Mexican-American Relations
The United States had two chief policies when it came to Mexico. One was to maintain good business relations so the US could extract wealth from Mexico. The other was to ensure the US maintained a hegemonic status over its southern neighbour to ensure that this economic policy was adequately supported by force.
On the eve of the revolution, the US had massive economic ties to Mexico. In 1912, they held $1.5 billion dollars in Mexican assets (about $42.3 billion in today’s money). They owned 78% of mines, 72% of smelters, 58% of oil, and 68% of rubber plantations.
Over 75000 Americans called Mexico their home, living in colonies across the north. Colonies which often spoke English, practiced Protestantism, and refused to integrate into the local cultures and communities.
American money was involved heavily in Mexican affairs and it was assumed that every faction in the revolution was supported by one US business interest or another.
In terms of military force, the Pershing Expedition wasn’t even the first military intervention into Mexico, far from it.
Most famously, there was the Mexican-American war which saw the United States seize massive tracts of Northern Mexico and forceful integrate them into the growing sphere of the United States. But lesser known are the many punitive expedition undertake by the United States over the years.
The first took place in 1836, when General Edmund Gaines pushed into Mexico to hunt down Indian tribes that had been deemed a threat to American assets. This attack just happened to coincide with the Texas War of Independence.
Then in 1855, there was the Callahan Expedition which saw three companies of slaveholders enter into Mexico to punish Indian for raids into the United States. Instead, they ended up looting and pillaging communities made up of runaway slaves, destroying the town of Piedras Negras. This force would later be forced back by a combined Mexican-Indian army.
At the federal level, these raids often gained government approval. To quote William Marcy, Secretary of War for the Polk administration:
“If Mexican Indians, whom Mexico is bound to restrain, are permitted to cross its border and commit depredations in the United States they may be chased across the border and there punished.”
In 1858, 1859, and 1860 President Buchanan would call repeatedly for the occupation of Northern Mexico and the establishment of a protectorate over these domains. This overlapped with the raids of Juan Nepomuceno Cortina a Mexican outlaw who repeatedly pushed into the United States and came into conflict with American forces. His raids got so bad that Robert E Lee was dispatched to the border to assemble a punitive force.
Though in the early 1860s, some unimportant events to our narrative sidelined this operation.
Between 1869–80, US-Mexican border relations would reach their lowest levels since the Mexican-American war. In this period, 25% of Mexican cattle bore Texan brands while another 25% had altered Texan brands. This period saw many punitive expeditions with 15 occurring within a three-year period between 1877–80.
The point of this is to show that the Pershing Expedition was not the first show of force into Mexico. Though what does make it unique is the sheer scope of the operation. While previous expeditions were only a couple hundred men at most, this was a proper invasion force.
This both reflects the intensity of Villa’s attack but also the interest that the United States had in the region. As mentioned, there was a lot of US business assets in Mexico with Diaz surrendering large tracts of the economy to American capital. This meant that there was a vested interest in ensuring not only the stability of Mexico but also the authority of a pro-American government in Mexico City.
Carranza was not this figure.
During the war, he taxed American businesses heavily and even confiscating their assets if taxes were not paid. Funnily enough, Villa was actually the more pro-American leader initially, sparing US assets in an effort to get them on his side.
Still, Carranza’s overwhelmingly dominant position, coming into 1915, made it essential that the US recognized his authority as the legitimate government of Mexico.
But even without Villa’s attack, it is hard to imagine that the United State wouldn’t have gotten involved in Mexican affairs. There was intense support from both congress and the senate to intervene. Part of this was posturing about national honour, part was to secure bases, a small voice wanted to implement an expansionist policy, but mostly this was seen as a means of using the US military to extort Carranza into being pro-American.
Now that we know about the American perspective, we can now see what Villa’s mindset was going into his attack on Columbus.
Hero to Villain: Pancho Villa.
After Villa’s break with Carranza, the two factions engaged in a renewed phase of the civil war.
Initially, Villa met much success, capturing Mexico City and forcing Carranza onto the run. During the year of 1914, engagements were hotly contested between the two factions and the balance of power within Mexico was up in the air.
The United States didn’t know which faction to support at this time though many in Washington favoured the idea of supporting Villa as he was seen as the more pro-American of the two. After all, Carranza was seizing American assets while Villa tried desperately to avoid doing so.
At this time Woodrow Wilson was willing to support any faction within Mexico which could achieve five criteria:
- Display a willingness to carry out social and political reforms to stabilize the country, including much needed agrarian reforms.
- Respect parliamentary institutions and show an intention to carry out free elections.
- Show dedication to free enterprise without favouring specific business interests.
- Respect American property rights.
- And display a strong personality that could impose control over Mexico.
How favourably did Villa fall under these criteria?
Well first off, he did desire reform, he was as hands off with American property as possible, he believed in democracy (at least publicly), and he was definitely a strong figure, being able to mobilize tens of thousands to his banner.
But as 1914 dragged on, Villa’s relationship with the United States started to sour.
First, there was the issue of arms imports as the flow of munitions southwards started to dry up. This happened because American munitions were going to the far more profitable markets of Europe which was in the midst of the First World War. This meant that guns and ammo became more expensive at the same time that Villa’s money reserves were starting to falter.
This led to Villa taping into the final reserve of capital that remained within his territory, that being the American companies. Previously, American companies had been left largely untouched due to the importance of US support for Villa’s cause. But now their taxes were increased and if taxes were not paid their assets were seized for the war effort, much like in Carranza’s domains.
This policy put a damper on relations with his northern neighbour pretty quickly.
Though more important than the money issues was the fact that in April 1915, Villa suffered a crippling military defeat at the hands of Carranza at the Battle of Celaya. During this struggle, Villa’s army of 22000 would suffer 6000 killed, 6500 captured, and 5000 wounded, utterly shattering his forces and ability to rival Carranza.
The writing was on the wall and in October 1915, Wilson recognized Carranza’s government as the legitimate government of Mexico. A move that was soon followed by many other nations in Latin America and Europe.
At the same time, Carranza was also undermining Villa’s local support within Mexico. On Jan 6th, 1915 he issued the Agrarian Decree which spoke about the return of lands owned by the Diaz-era barons to local communities and villages, increasing his support within the countryside.
Then on July 29th, 1915 he stopped the collection of taxes in lands outside of his own territory, further warming himself up to American companies while also agitating the American businesses under Villa.
These two pressures pushed Villa into more desperate, erratic, and anti-American positions.
By late 1915, he was already attacking Americans and American interests in Mexico. In October 1915, he confiscated the Chihuahua plant of the American Smelting and Refining Company. In Dec 1915, he held 30 American citizens hostage to collect money on their ransoms. Then in Jan 1916, leading up to the raid, Villa massacred 18 Americans in Santa Ysabel.
Then we approach March 9th, 1916 and the attack on Columbus.
We start to get a better idea of Villa’s motives approaching this. He viewed Americans as backstabbers who yanked the rug out from under him, while feeling increasing pressure at home which made it harder and harder to gather local support.
However, before we move onto the raid, we must examine one last thing.
In late 1915, Villa launched a campaign to expand his holdings, pushing out of his traditional heartland of Chihuahua and into the neighbouring province of Sonora. During this campaign he was defeated by Carranza’s forces who had been able to move rapidly due to him receiving consent from the United States to move his troops through their territory.
To Villa, this showed that there was a clear alliance between Carranza and the now much hated United States of America. To him, this showed that his opponent was willing to sell out Mexico itself in his quest to cement power.
After the failed campaign, he released a manifesto lambasting Carranza and claiming eight points of dubious truth that his opponent was turning Mexico into an American client state. These points were as followed:
- An amnesty for all political prisoners from all factions of the civil war.
- A 99-year lease to the United States of Magdalena Bay, Tehuantepec, and various oil fields.
- An American ability to veto selections for the Minister of Interior, Foreign Affairs, and Finance.
- All paper money would be overseen by American advisors.
- All foreigners would be paid for property damage and have their properties returned.
- The Mexican National Railway would be controlled by an American governing board until the company’s debts were repaid.
- The issuing of a $500 million loan that would be guaranteed with the Mexican treasury as collateral.
- General Gonzalez would be named provisional president and call an election.
How much of this was true and how much of this was the ravings of a man who was at clearly the end of his rope?
Of these eight points, only one held a grain of truth when it came to Carranza. This being his willingness to agree to claims of property damage by American citizens and also the return of confiscated lands to their former owners.
However, a few more of these points held other grains of truth.
Back in 1915, plans were being conceived by the American state department and supported by American business interests and Mexican conservatives. These plans called for the US to throw its support behind another general known as Iturbide. It also called for the US to loan Mexico $500 million in exchange for supervision over custom collections and the promotion of an unofficial American advisor to help with reforms, along with the return of expropriated lands.
This gave some more substance to Villa’s fears when drafting his eight points against Carranza.
There were also other aspects of the plot which further led to Villa’s fears. For example, off the record, this plot also called for the US to intervene into Mexico when ports and railways were threatened, along with giving it influence over the Tehuantepec railroad and Magdalena Bay.
Villa would’ve known about these plots as his generals were approached about them previously to see if they would be willing to support such a scheme.
But in the end, Carranza was a nationalist and not a man who was going to cave to American interests so easily. So, Villa’s cries fell upon deaf ears, leaving him with even less options on how to proceed with his armed resistance.
As that fateful day in 1916 approached, Villa amassed his soldiers in secret, preparing them for a march north. The reason for his attack could be one of many but was largely unknown, even to those under him.
Was it revenge against the United States for their support of Carranza?
Was it to pull the United States directly into the civil war and hurt Carranza?
Was it the promise of arms from a Germany desperate to cause instability in the region? Arms which could be used to, you guessed it, fight Carranza?
All three theories have been postulated and have a mutual grain of truth. That is, that this action was done to hurt Carranza. But in the end, regardless of reason, Villa attacked and within months a US army would be on Mexican soil.
Their mission?
To hunt down the outlaw known as Pancho Villa.
Conclusion
Pershing’s expedition into Mexico would last nearly a year, claiming the lives of 65 Americans and 251 Mexicans. It would fail in its objective of capturing Pancho Villa who would remain illusive until he struck a deal with Carranza to lay down his arms in 1920.
Villa would actually outlive his chief opponent. After the election of 1920, general Obregon led a coup upon Mexico City to oust Carranza and his puppet successor Bonillas. During his flight to Vera Cruz, he would be ambushed before committing suicide.
Villa himself would die a little over three years later, killed in a similar assassination when his motorcade was ambushed by gunmen near his opulent ranch in Chihuahua. And with his death, came the end of the two great men of the Mexican Revolution.
In the decades to follow, Mexico would heal and relations between it and the United States would mend. However, Mexican-American relations would persist as they had before the revolution, being one of American hegemony over its southern neighbour, both economically and politically.
In this article, we first examined the Mexican Revolution, discussing the complex set of shifting alliances that marked the period between 1910–1914, leading up to the rivalry between Villa and Carranza.
Second, we discussed the United State’s economic interests in Mexico and its history of proactive interventions into the nation.
And lastly, we discussed Villa’s motives leading up to his attack on Columbus. An attack that would bring General Pershing and an American army onto Mexican soil.
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